Has this study evaluated internal and external stress factors? If the family is strong and supportive of each other does this reduce the effects of external factors such as poverty and neighborhood social problems? Conversly, does a rich environment reduce the effects of a dysfunctional family? Complicated questions for a complicated problem.

[...] Resto de la nota en inglés [...]

[...] Futurity reports on Duke University’s research into the impact of childhood trauma on adult li…. Essentially, experiences of trauma in childhood like maltreatment, neglect and abuse, are significant risk factors in the development of adult disorders like depression and chronic inflammation. The age they mentioned widened my eyes: I’ll be 32 next year. [...]

[...] This article from Futurity.org highlights new research out of Duke that shows that people who suffer abuse/neglect in childhood develop higher risks of poor health as adults. Maltreated kids were twice as likely to suffer depression, chronic inflammation, and poor/isolated kids had a higher risk of age-related illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and dementia. [...]

[...] Cortisol chronically pumping through the body, leading to an erosion of the immune system and the body systems? How about how the drug companies kill thousands every year because its cheaper to pay off lawsuits [...]

Interesting and extremely valid concept, although, realistically speaking, it’s very surprising that “nobody” came up with the connection sooner.
Surely, there are bodies of research, from fields as diverse as Psychology, Child Development, Pedagogy, Sociology… that suggest important links between the experiences an individual has in early childhood, and adult outcomes? For example, way back in the 1950′s, a man named John Bowlby undertook several pieces of research intended to evaluate the importance of the bond formed between a child, and its primary caregiver(s). These formed the basis of his “Attachment Theory”, which outlines the fact that the strength and durability of the bond between child and primary caregiver(s) affects every aspect of a child’s initial development, and exploration of the world about. Mary Ainsworth then went on to expand upon this theory.
Even before Bowlby, there had been studies to look at an effect known as “imprinting”, which showed that infants acquire behavioural characteristics from their parents (often through a process akin to mimickry). Such studies were independently undertaken by the 19th century amateur Biologist Douglas Spalding, and later by ethologists Oskar Heinroth and Konrad Lorenz.
In Social Work practice, something known as the Biopsychosocial Model may already be regularly applied to the formulation of packages of care designed to assist individuals in need of support. This general model posits that biological, psychological and social factors ALL combine to play a significant role in human functioning in the context of disease and illness. An excellent proponent of said theory, who applies it throughout all of her writing, is the disabled activist and scholar, Jenny Morris (a fantastic author, who writes articulately about both her own experiences of disability, and those of others).
We know from John Holt’s (1960s) work in the field of Pedagogy that children perform best when placed in environments that they do not find pressurised or stressful.
It is nothing new to many researchers, and practitioners, alike, to hear that children who are subjected to trauma at a young age may in later life experience an increased likelihood of health problems. Common sense alone could figure that out! After all, the child who is inadequately nourished, and is refused regular medical check-ups and treatment (a form of abuse often known as Neglect) may well be more at risk of long term health defects, quite simply because of regular exposure to untreated infection, which depletes the body both physically, and emotionally.
But, forgive me for being facetious! On a deeper level, it is very important that the link between childhood trauma, and long term health problems is not overlooked. At present, far too much of the research that takes place in this area appears focussed upon stating that which is already known – “reinventing the wheel”, so to speak. It is much more important that said research attempts to address what is actually going on; the dynamics involved. It is also important that any research attempts to make clear exactly what it is that may be defined as childhood trauma.
Again, there is far too much emphasis upon the blatantly obvious. Any good Social Worker, or Nurse… in fact, most medical professionals possessed of common sense and adequate training… can grasp that there will be a link between child abuse (be it sexual, physical, emotional, or otherwise), and negative outcomes in adulthood. Surely we all have heard of what may be termed “psychosomatic disorders”? We are already aware that some disorders that manifest in a predominantly physical manner (e.g. Asthma, or Psoriasis) can be made worse by such factors as stress and anxiety. It makes sense, therefore, to attempt to understand that the individual who has been exposed for a large proportion of their lifetime to stressful factors, may well be at high risk of such illnesses.
Childhood trauma has already been implicated in the aetiology of a number of diseases seen in adulthood; from the obvious, such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Depression, to Eczema, Stomach Ulcers, Heart Disease and High Blood Pressure. Perhaps this is because repeated stressful incidents have a cumulative effect upon the individual, and can lead to chronic over-stimulation of the body’s stress response. Conversely, prolonged stress can cause opposite effects for some individuals, where the body’s stress apparatus becomes under-activated (almost as though it has “burned itself out”).
What is REALLY needed is some truly ORIGINAL, and ground-breaking research. Something that pulls together themes from previous studies, and neatly sums them up. Something that addresses such factors as “what exactly is a traumatic childhood event”? We need to ask questions as to whether childhood illness and hospitalization can lead to trauma? Whether parental or sibling illness or hospitalization can traumatize a child? Whether playground bullying counts? Whether moving house, moving school, or loss of old friends counts? Does the death of a distant relative, or of a pet, traumatize? What do we know about the long term effects of such incidents?
We also need to evaluate the impact of other factors… Are children whose caregivers are loving and supportive less likely to experience trauma; or, if they do, will its effects be mitigated? Are some children simply more resilient than others, as suggested by the recent “Dandelion and Orchid” theorizing about child development? Do environmental factors play a part? What about extended social support networks? What is the role of teachers, or family doctors, clergy, or other adult individuals a child may have contact with, such as sports coaches, or Guide mistresses? What is the role of peers?
Research that does not attempt to answer such questions is not really of any great use. There is, as I have already noted, plenty of information already out there. It needs pulling together. This research provides us with little new knowledge.
For some truly informative reading, try:
1. “Repated Restraint Stress Facilitates Fear Conditioning Independently Of Causing Hippocampal CA3 Dendritic Atrophy”, by Conrad, LeDoux, Magarinos and McEwen (1999).
2. “Physiology And Neurobiology Of Stress And Adaptation: Central Role Of The Brain”, by McEwan (2007).
3. “The Role Of Stressful Life Events”, by Schwarzer and Schulz (2001).
Or, go seek out some of the authors I have mentioned above…

Happy reading!
Elaine Margaret Ellis.
(ex. Social Worker, current Psychology Postgraduate).

Just a few more of my musings… not too much in the way of mental exertion, but hopefully something (for any of you who may be interested) to think about…
Might we be able to compare an individual’s experiences of traumatic childhood events to the experiences of kidnap victims, or hostages? I say this for a number of reasons, which I shall now attempt to explain.
Firstly, the child, just like the hostage, is unable to exert control over what is happening to them. A hostage is at the mercy of their captors; the child experiencing trauma may be abused, and thus at the mercy of their abuser(s). Children in society are generally powerless – they are reliant utterly upon their caregivers for shelter and sustenance, and do not have the means to look after themselves. Therefore, the abused child is not able to escape or to avoid the abuse, as it occurs within the context of a relationship with people on whom they might be expected to be dependent. Even where the traumatic childhood event does not constitute abuse, it is generally something over which a child still has little power or control. For instance, in respect of medical treatment, a child is not seen as competent to give consent until such time as he or she has reached their majority. Therefore, it is the caregiver who must consent to treatment. How might it feel for the child who must undergo painful, invasive surgery, to know that it is their own mother or father, for example, who has sanctioned this treatment?
Children, in effect, have very few true rights; they are certainly unable to freely exercise them. Think about it! A child must live where their caregiver(s) choose(s) to live. The child’s clothes may often be chosen for them. Their school; which the child might argue they are forced to attend; is chosen for them. The child eats what is made available to them via their caregiver(s). The caregiver(s) take(s) the child for medical treatment, and is the one who most likely has their voice heard at any medical appointments. In sum, the child is reliant upon others to have its most basic needs – food, drink, warmth, shelter, company – met.
It is a well known and researched fact that many victims of kidnapping or abduction come to experience what is known as “Stockholm Syndrome”, a peculiar phenomenon in which they begin to identify with, and even to sympathise with, their captors. “Battered Wife Syndrome” and “Beaten Person Syndrome” are variants on this theme. These are all forms of traumatic bonding , not necessarily requiring a hostage scenario, but descriptive of the strong emotional ties that may be formed between two people where one intermittently abuses the other (in whatever form).
Some researchers, such as Azar Gat, have attempted to argue that the human ability to form personal bonds during such traumatic situations is of evolutionary benefit. It demonstrates hardiness and adaptive behaviour. However; and this is only a personal opinion; I would postulate otherwise. To me, it would appear that such traumatic bonding has more in common with the condition known as “learned helplessness”.
In this theory, one sees the view that such things as depression and related mental illnesses may result from an individual’s perceived lack of control over the outcome of a situation. The individual experiencing “learned helplessness” has been conditioned, by endurance of a series of negative experiences over which they genuinely had NO control, to believe that each time they encounter a similar situation, they continue to have no control over its outcome. Thus, even when faced with the opportunity of escaping a negative situation, the individual will passively resign him-or herself to putting up with it.
It is widely understood that “learned helplessness” can lead to physical deterioration in health. This may happen for a variety of reasons. It could be that the individual becomes apathetic, neglecting healthy diet, exercise and medical treatment; falsely believing these to have no positive benefits. It might be that the individual suffers depression, anxiety, or “stress”, perceiving life events as unpredictable and uncontrollable, thus living in a constant state of agitation, with its associated risks of raised blood pressure, peptic ulcers, heart disease and sleep disorders. Perhaps a combination of the two?
Might it not be argued that the child who has experienced repeated traumatic events at a young age is likely to develop a state of “learned helplessness”? Could it even be argued that abused children experience “Stockholm Syndrome”? After all, they are obliged to identify with their abusers, quite simply because the abusers are so often their caregivers.
Certainly, the child experiencing trauma will experience an activation of their “fight or flight” mechanism. This mechanism, as described by Walter Bradford Cannon (1915, 1929), is activated in response to acutely stressful situations, and results in a general discharge of the central nervous system. Hormones including Adrenaline and Noradrenaline are activated, as these help prepares the body for rapid and
violent muscular action. They are responsible for familiar “fight or flight” reactions, including accelerated heart rate, rapid breathing, constriction of blood vessels, pupil dilation, shaking and sweating. The stress response also inhibits sexual function, and slows digestion.
Prolonged stress responses may result in suppression of the immune system, leaving the body open to frequent infection. Prolonged stress can also raise Cortisol levels. This, too, can be disastrous. Cortisol is involved in several important bodily functions, including regulation of inflammatory responses, regulation of blood pressure, immune function, glucose metabolism and insulin release for blood sugar maintenance.
Surely, then, I have attempted to demonstrate to you that childhood traumatic events may be linked, through what I have described above, to a huge range of diseases in adulthood. Depletion of the immune system can leave a person wide open to opportunistic infection. Raised Cortisol levels can trigger excessive inflammation, as well as adversely affecting blood pressure and blood sugar levels. Might it not now be understood that the individual who has suffered excessive, and prolonged, negative stress is at risk of a huge range of illnesses, from Diabetes Type Two, to Fibromyalgia, to Anorexia, Sexual Dysfunction, and others besides?

Just a hypothesis…
Elaine Margaret Ellis.